1,900-Year-Old Papyrus Reveals Criminal Case from Roman Empire | Sci.News

Written in Greek, this papyrus is a memorandum for a judicial hearing before a Roman official in the province of Judea or Arabia in the reign of the Roman emperor Hadrian, after his visit to the region in 129/130 CE and before the outbreak of the Bar Kokhba Revolt in 132. The papyrus contains an informal record of the hearing, which concerns the prosecution of a number of individuals, including a certain Gadalias and Saulos, who are accused of forging documents relating to the sale and manumission of slaves in order to circumvent the imperial fiscus (treasury controlled by the emperor).

The papyrus in question was discovered in the 1950s in one of the caves of Nahal Hever in the Judean Desert.

Initially misclassified as Nabatean, the document remained unnoticed until its rediscovery in 2014 by Hebrew University’s Professor Hannah Cotton Paltiel.

Now dubbed Papyrus Cotton, the papyrus is more than 133 lines long, which makes it the longest Greek document ever to be found in the Judean Desert.

Professor Cotton Paltiel and her colleagues from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the University of Vienna and Hebrew University determined that the document represents prosecutors’ notes for a trial before Roman officials on the eve of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 CE), including a rapidly drafted transcript of the judicial hearing itself.

The language is vibrant and direct, with one prosecutor advising another on the strength of various pieces of evidence and strategizing to anticipate objections.

“This papyrus is extraordinary because it provides direct insight into trial preparations in this part of the Roman Empire,” said Dr. Anna Dolganov from the Austrian Academy of Sciences.

“This is the best-documented Roman court case from Judea apart from the trial of Jesus,” added Hebrew University’s Dr. Avner Ecker.

The papyrus details a case involving forgery, tax evasion, and the fraudulent sale and manumission of slaves in the Roman provinces of Judea and Arabia, roughly corresponding to modern Israel and Jordan.

The main defendants, Gadalias and Saulos, stand accused of corrupt dealings.

Gadalias, the son of a notary and possibly a Roman citizen, had a criminal history involving violence, extortion, counterfeiting, and inciting rebellion.

Saulos, his collaborator, orchestrated the fictitious sale and manumission of slaves without paying the requisite Roman taxes.

To conceal their activities, the defendants forged documents.

“Forgery and tax fraud carried severe penalties under Roman law, including hard labor or even capital punishment,” Dr. Dolganov said.

This criminal case unfolded between two major Jewish uprisings against Roman rule: the Jewish Diaspora Revolt (115-117 CE) and the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 CE).

Notably, the text implicates Gadalias and Saulos in rebellious activities during Emperor Hadrian’s visit to the region (129/130 CE) and names Tineius Rufus, the governor of Judea when the Bar Kokhba Revolt began.

In the wake of prior unrest, Roman authorities likely viewed the defendants with suspicion, connecting their crimes to broader conspiracies against the empire.

“Whether they were indeed involved in rebellion remains an open question, but the insinuation speaks to the charged atmosphere of the time,” Dr. Dolganov said.

“The nature of the crime raises questions, as freeing slaves does not appear to be a profitable business model,” Dr. Ecker said.

“The enslaved individuals’ origins remain unclear, but the case may have involved illicit human trafficking or the Jewish Biblical duty to redeem enslaved Jews.”

The papyrus offers new insights into Roman law in the Greek-speaking eastern empire, referencing the governor of Judea’s assize tour and compulsory jury service.

“This document shows that core Roman institutions documented in Egypt were also implemented throughout the empire,” Professor Mitthof said.

“The papyrus also showcases the Roman state’s ability to regulate private transactions even in remote regions.”

“Likely originating from a hideout cave in the Judean Desert during the Bar Kokhba Revolt, its careful preservation remains a mystery, and the trial’s outcome may have been interrupted by the rebellion.”

The team’s paper was published in the journal Tyche.

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Anna Dolganov et al. 2025. Forgery and Fiscal Fraud in Iudaea and Arabia on the Eve of the Bar Kokhba Revolt: Memorandum and Minutes of a Trial before a Roman Official (P.Cotton). Tyche 38; doi: 10.25365/tyche-2023-38-5